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Century-old bioelectricity theory undergoes significant revision; Origami windmill model points directly to core blind spot of HH equation

发布时间：

2026-05-19

In the history of neuroscience, Hodgkin and Huxley’s electrophysiological experiments on squid giant axons laid the experimental foundation for modern research on cellular bioelectricity. Their rigorous selection of research subjects, standardized experimental procedures and credible raw data remain a universally recognized classic paradigm in the field to this day, making an irreplaceable contribution to the advancement of electrophysiology. Nevertheless, after dominating academic circles for more than 70 years, the theoretical flaws of the Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) equation and the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) equation derived from these experiments have gradually come to light.

A study based on the potassium channel origami windmill model has systematically sorted out ten major cognitive blind spots in mainstream theories, offering a brand-new perspective for research on the underlying mechanism of cellular bioelectricity.

For a long time, the mainstream academic community has held a fundamental dimensional cognitive bias: ion concentration variations at the order of 10⁻⁸ (one hundred-millionth) are generally regarded as negligible infinitesimal quantities. However, new research finds that the key determining changes in cell membrane potential precisely lie in the trace amount of ions attached to the inner surface of the cell membrane. Calculations show that there are approximately 1,250 effective ion units involved in potential formation on the inner membrane surface. Taking this number as a common divisor, the quantity of sodium and potassium ions on the inner surface of the squid cell membrane strictly follows a diameter ratio of 2:3. Mainstream theories adopt macroscopic concentration changes to explain microscopic membrane surface effects, giving rise to fundamental deviations at the mathematical level.

Oscilloscopes can clearly observe a complete potential closed loop of -60mV, -40mV and +40mV, yet mainstream theories have always failed to explain the physical causes of positive and negative membrane potentials, relying merely on formula numerical fitting with logically inconsistent reasoning. Meanwhile, academic circles have long overlooked the diameter ratio relationship between potassium and sodium ions, as well as the key feature that chloride ions are constrained by the membrane structure and can hardly cross the membrane. As a fixed negative charge background inside the membrane, chloride ions serve as an essential foundation for potential formation — a premise completely ignored in the HH equation system.

Old and new theories diverge significantly in physical modeling and the laws of ion movement. Mainstream theories apply Ohm’s law and the capacitance model to interpret bioelectric phenomena, while the new study argues that kinematic equations should be used to describe ion acceleration and uniform motion. Deductions based on the origami windmill model indicate that the rising phase of the action potential results from the accelerated inward flow of sodium ions, and the falling phase from the accelerated inward flow of potassium ions — a conclusion completely opposite to the mainstream view of potassium ion outward flow, which can be directly verified by high-precision experiments.

In terms of ion channel structure, the study proposes that the ion inlet and outlet are independent structures, corresponding respectively to a windmill rotating structure and a sphincter opening-closing structure; the two share the same directional pathway, rather than forming a single pore as traditionally believed. This viewpoint is indirectly corroborated by research from Nobel laureate Roderick MacKinnon’s team. Their experimental findings on the cooperative opening and closing of four subunits are highly consistent with the structural prediction of the origami windmill model. Moreover, the mainstream claim that cells possess thousands of types of ion channels runs counter to the evolutionary logic of unicellular organisms and contains obvious cognitive misconceptions.

Furthermore, mainstream theories fail to distinguish the electrophysiological differences between neurons and cardiomyocytes. Neurons are more consistent with the characteristics of a second-order LC oscillation system, which constitutes the crucial physical basis that differentiates advanced brain functions from myocardial activity. The over-reliance on the sodium-potassium pump also exposes the shortcomings of mainstream theories: the operating rate of the sodium-potassium pump cannot match the millisecond-level changes of action potentials, and it only maintains long-term concentration homeostasis. The mechanical application of the Nernst equation without considering microscopic membrane surface effects further widens the disconnect between theory and practical observations.

This research does not negate the experimental achievements of Hodgkin and Huxley; instead, it carries out systematic revisions to their theoretical deductions. The new hypothesis based on the origami windmill model features self-consistent logic and aligns well with experimental phenomena, poised to drive new breakthroughs in the theory of cellular bioelectricity. (By Ai Li)